Scientific Revolution
During the 12th century, Universities were established in several parts of Europe.
In 1440 the printing press was invented in Germany. Over the next three decades, the printing press facility extended to many cities and towns. Knowledge started spreading quickly. Books were made available at affordable rates in bulk quantity.
1088-Bologna University was founded in Italy.
1096-Oxford University was founded in England.
1164-Salamanca University was founded in Spain.
1209-Cambridge University was founded in England.
1222-Padua University was founded in Italy.
1224-Neaples University was founded in Italy.
Scientific Revolution.
1543-Heliocentric model of Planets by Copernicus.
The cosmology of early 16th-century Europe held that Earth sat stationary and motionless at the center of several rotating, concentric spheres that bore the celestial bodies: the sun, the moon, the known planets, and the stars. From ancient times, philosophers adhered to the belief that the heavens were arranged in circles (which by definition are perfectly round), causing confusion among astronomers who recorded the often eccentric motion of the planets, which sometimes appeared to halt in their orbit of Earth and move retrograde across the sky.
The Ptolemaic system remained Europe’s accepted cosmology for more than 1,000 years, but by Copernicus’ day accumulated astronomical evidence had thrown some of his theories into confusion. Astronomers disagreed on the order of the planets from Earth, and it was this problem that Copernicus addressed at the beginning of the 16th century.
Nicolaus Copernicus born in Poland in 1473. He moved to the University of Bologna [Italy] in 1496. The Police mathematician Nicolas Copernicus studied in Italy and took interest in astronomy. After a deep study on astronomy, he proposed a heliocentric planetary system [including the earth].
1514-The Sun and not the Earth was the center of the planetary orbits. The apparent motion of the sun through an annual cycle is caused by the Earth revolving around the Sun. Only the moon revolves around the Earth.
1540-What appears to us as motions of the sun arise not from its motion but from the motion of the earth and our sphere, with which we revolve about the sun like any other planet. The earth has, then, more than one motion.
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, like the earth, are moving around the Sun-but farther away. the Earth traveling in a smaller orbit around the Sun would sometimes pass up these outer planets in their longer orbits, making them look like they were moving backward across the sky.
The fact that Mercury and Venus were never found opposite the Sun in the sky Copernicus explained by placing their orbits closer to the Sun than that of the Earth.
Indeed, Copernicus was able to place the planets in order of their distances from the Sun by considering their speeds and thus to construct a system of the planets.
In 1543, as he lay on his deathbed, Copernicus finished reading the proofs of his great work; De revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri VI; was the opening shot in a revolution whose consequences were greater than those of any other intellectual event in the history of humankind.
He published his theory in 1543 just before his death.
Following Isaac Newton’s work in celestial mechanics in the late 17th century, acceptance of the Copernican theory spread rapidly in non-Catholic countries, and by the late 18th century the Copernican view of the solar system, was almost universally accepted.
The period 1450 to 1650 is called the renaissance period. The rebirth of social order occurred in Europe during this period.
Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) was the greatest astronomical observer before the invention of the telescope. He called Copernicus a ‘second Ptolemy’ (quoted in Westman 1975, 307) and appreciated both the elimination of the equant and the creation of a planetary system.
Tycho Brahe was a nobleman from Denmark who made astronomy his life's work because he was so impressed when, as a boy, he saw an eclipse of the Sun take place at exactly the time it was predicted. He studied mathematics and astronomy in Germany. Then, in 1571, when he was 25, Tycho built his own observatory on an island (the King of Denmark gave him the island and some additional money just for that purpose). Tycho named his island observatory Uraniborg-Urania. Tycho's life's work in astronomy consisted of measuring the positions of the stars, planets, Moon, and Sun, every night and day possible, and carefully recording these measurements, year after year.
Tycho’s interest in astronomy began with the solar eclipse of August 21, 1560. In August 1563, aged 16, Tycho began his first logbook of astronomical observations. He observed the one-in-twenty-year conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn. It became Tycho’s goal to produce truly accurate predictions of planetary positions based on accurate observations. Tycho made his first significant discovery on November 11, 1572. Observing the night sky from an uncle’s home, Tycho was amazed to see a new light brighter than Venus in the sky. . He deduced that it was a star because, unlike closer bodies such as the planets, its position relative to the other stars did not change. In 1573, he published De nova Stella – The New Star. Tycho’s new star gradually faded until, after a year, it was no longer visible to the naked eye. The Great Comet of 1577, Tycho recorded the comet’s positions between November 13, 1577, and January 26, 1578, after which he could no longer see it.
The comet’s tail always pointed away from the sun.
The comet’s path was associated with the sun, not the earth. . It prompted him to begin making observations with a view to producing his own star catalog to replace Ptolemy’s ancient work. Tycho accurately recorded the positions of 777 stars by 1592, and he eventually amassed data for 1,006 stars.
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630 ) came from a poor German family. As a young man, Kepler studied theology and science and discovered that he liked science better. He became an accomplished mathematician and a persistent and determined calculator. His belief in the Copernican concept of a heliocentric universe was a dangerous one. With the coming of the 30 Years' War, Kepler and his wife were exiled due to their Protestant beliefs.
1600-Bruno the Italian philosopher and thinker was burned on February 16, in Rome.
Rapid accumulation of knowledge never happened before the 17th century.
1608-Telescope was invented in the Netherlands.
The Italian Galileo Galilei constructed a telescope and made observations of the planet Jupiter and its four moons. He made observations on Venus and Saturn. His observations supported that of Copernican theory. He declared that the Earth is not the center of the Universe, and it is in motion around the Sun like other planets do. His statement was contrary to what is written in the bible. In 1633 when he was 70 years old, he was summoned to Rome and was placed under house arrest for the rest of his life. He died in 1642.
His writings were in support of the Copernican heliocentric system of the universe.
The Copernican heliocentric solar system, Galileo's observations, and Kepler's laws of planetary motion, all these new world orders made people think over the reality of Nature around them.
There arose a divide between Catholics and Protestants and it led to unrest in central Europe. A lot of turmoil started from 1618 to 1648. This is referred to as thirty years of war in Europe. Loss of human life and property occurred.
1609-Kepler's laws of Planetary motion.
⬧ All planets move in ellipses, with the Sun at one focus.
⬧ A planet's rate of motion is inversely proportional to its distance from the Sun.
⬧ Planets sweep out equal areas in equal times.
The ratio of the square of the period of revolution and the cube of the ellipse semi-major axis is the same for all planets.
1619-Kepler’s third law of Planetary motion:- if T is the time period of revolution of the planet, and if R is the distance of the planet from the Sun, Then, T2 R3 ;
“The squire of the time period T is proportional to the cube of the distance R of the planet from the Sun.”
1627- Kepler published a book of Planetary motion tables.
Galileo found that Kepler’s third law of planetary motion was also applicable to Jupiter’s four satellites.
The satellites followed the same principle as did the planets revolving around the Sun. Later on, it was found that Kepler's third law holds good for the movement of stars in a Galaxy. The law was universal.
1614-Use of logarithms for the calculation by Neper.
1618-1648- The Thirty Years’ War:
The Thirty Years’ War was a 17th-century religious conflict fought primarily in central Europe. It remains one of the longest and most brutal wars in human history, with more than 8 million casualties resulting from military battles as well as from the famine and disease caused by the conflict. The war lasted from 1618 to 1648, starting as a battle among the Catholic and Protestant states that formed the Holy Roman Empire. However, as the Thirty Years’ War evolved, it became less about religion and more about which group would ultimately govern Europe.
In European history, a series of wars fought by various nations for various reasons, including religious, dynastic, territorial, and commercial rivalries. Its destructive campaigns and battles occurred over most of Europe, and, when it ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the map of Europe had been irrevocably changed.
1620-Francis Bacon experimental science philosophy.
1638-laws of falling bodies by Galileo Galilei.
1643-Mercury barometer by Torricelli.
1642-Birth of Isaac Newton in England on December 25.
Isaac Newton the great scientist graduated from Cambridge University and he gave the fundamental laws of motion and the universal law of gravitation. this law cleared all doubts and the heliocentric system of planets was accepted all over the world.
1649- English civil war started.
A nation at war: Fearing for his own safety, in 1642 Charles fled London, first heading north to where he believed his main support lay. At Hull, the king was refused entry to the city by the Lord Mayor, and later that year, in Nottingham, Charles raised his royal standard: the first symbol of open warfare with Parliament.
On 23 October 1642, the first true battle of the Civil Wars took place, at Edgehill in Warwickshire, resulting in the stalemate between Parliamentarian and Royalist forces. For four years afterward skirmishing and warfare erupted across the nation, as Roundheads (labeled for the Parliamentarians’ short-cropped hair) and Cavaliers (a derogatory term describing the courtly dress of Royalists) pitched themselves against each other. Families have torn apart as uncles, sons, brothers, and fathers took up arms against one another. In total, perhaps 100,000 soldiers and civilians perished during the wars, and 10,000 houses were destroyed.
On the morning of Tuesday 30 January 1649 Charles I head was removed by the executioner’s axe:
The English Bill of Rights was enacted through the Glorious Revolution of 1688.
1660-The Royal Society was established in London for the improvement of natural knowledge.
1661-Robert Boyle defined element, acid, and base concept.
1665- The microscope was invented by Robert Hooke.
1666-French Academy of Science started in Paris. the ore processing was studied here.
1676- The Danish astronomer Ole Roemer (1644–1710) became the first person to measure the speed of light.
The time for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth is. 8 minutes and 12 seconds. Depending on the value assumed for the astronomical unit, this yields the speed of light as just a little more than 300,000 kilometers per second. The modern value is 8 minutes and 19 seconds, and a speed of 299,792.458 km/s.
1668-Newton constructed a Reflection Telescope.
1687-Newton's laws of motion and the law of gravitation.
1800-Herschel built a 40 feet long reflecting telescope to see the universe.
William Herschel exclaimed that Newton's laws were indeed Universal!
The universe works on mechanical principles. By experiments and observations, the laws governing nature can be invented. Scientific truths can be used for human benefit and profit. Scientific truth leads to the technological advancement of human society. For instance, Newton's third law of motion can be used for rocket launching from earth into space. satellites can be placed at desired heights from the earth's surface.
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Birth of chemistry
1748- Coal mining started
1760- Iron smelting started
1765- steam Engine.
1781- James Watt’s Steam Engine and Industrial revolution. Steam locomotives for the transport of large loads on railroads. By 1800, the firm Boulton and Watts had constructed 496 steam engines.
In 1784 progress was made in extracting iron from the iron ore. the iron industry expanded over the days and iron and steel were made available for many human needs.
In 1758, Joseph Black formulated the concept of latent heat to explain the thermochemistry of phase changes.
The concept of latent heat of the water to form water-vapor could be used to construct steam Engines and steam locomotives. The mechanical power produced by Engines could be used for running machines for the Textile industry.
The Watt's steam engine, alternatively known as the Boulton and Watt steam engine, was the first practical steam engine and was one of the driving forces of the industrial revolution. James Watt developed the design sporadically from 1763 to 1775 with support from Matthew Boulton. Watt's design saved significantly more fuel compared to earlier designs that they were licensed based on the amount of fuel they would save. Watt never ceased developing the steam engine, introducing a double-acting design.
In 1785 he and Boulton were elected fellows of the Royal Society of London. Watt established in 1794 the new firm of Boulton & Watt, which built the Soho Foundry to manufacture steam engines more competitively. In 1784 Watt made further improvements to the steam engine and patented a steam locomotive. By 1790, both Boulton & Watt were wealthy men.
In fact, the industrial revolution started in England after the invention of the steam engine. Steam power was used to run the ships in the seawater.
What science offered in the 18th century was the hope that careful observation and experimentation might improve industrial production significantly.
The Industrial Revolution had one further important effect on the development of modern science. The prospect of applying science to the problems of industry served to stimulate public support for science.
1754-1756 Joseph Black and discovery of fixed air:
1766-Henry Cavendish discovered inflammable gas, hydrogen.
1773-Sheele isolated oxygen using silver carbonate.
1774-Priestly discovered Oxygen by heating HgO.
Lavoisier: 1777-1794
Lavoisier is most noted for his discovery of the role oxygen plays in combustion. He recognized and named oxygen (1778) and hydrogen (1783) and opposed the phlogiston theory.
In a series of careful balance experiments Lavoisier untangled
reactions to show that, when it burned, combustion actually involves the combination of bodies with a gas that Lavoisier named oxygen.
The chemical revolution was as much a revolution in a method as in. Gravimetric methods made possible precise analysis, and this, Lavoisier insisted, was the central concern of the new chemistry.
Only when bodies were analyzed as to their substances was it possible to classify them and their attributes logically and consistently.
1782-Lavoisier established the law of conservation of mass.
1789-For the first time, He Made a list of 23 known elements. He wrote the elementary treatise of chemistry.
1793-Alessandro Volta, an Italian Physicist, and chemist discovered the Principle of the primary battery.
1794-Lavoisier was executed in the French revolution.
1803-The law of multiple proportions by Dalton.
1803-Dalton's atomic theory.
Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
Atoms of the same element are identical in size, mass, and other properties. Atoms of different elements have different properties.
Atoms cannot be created, subdivided, or destroyed.
Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form chemical compounds.
In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged to form new compounds
1804-French chemist Joseph Proust proposed the law of definite proportions, which states that elements always combine in small, whole-number ratios to form compounds, based on several experiments conducted between 1797 and 1804.
1808- Law of combining volumes by Gay-Lussac.
1811-Avogadro's law states that equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and pressure must contain the same number of particles.
One mol of gas at STP contains 6.022 x 10 to the power of 23 molecules.
one mole of gas at STP occupies 22.7 liters volume. And the mass of one mole of gas is calculated by its molecular weight expressed in grams. the mass of one mole of oxygen gas= O2[16]=32 grams. the mass of one mil of carbon dioxide gas= C[12]+O2[16]= 44 g.
At STP one mole of CO2 occupies 22.7 liters = 44 grams, its weight= 6.022x10 to the power 23 molecules of that gas.
STP[standard Temperature and pressure] T= 0 degree celsius. P = one atmospheric pressure= 760 mm of Mercury in the barometer.
12 g carbon contains one-mole carbon atoms= 6.022x10 to the power of 23 atoms of carbon.
1812-using Volta's battery, Humphry Davy isolated new elements like potassium, Sodium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium, and Boron.
1817-Jacob Berzelius was a Swedish Chemist. Berzelius, [disciple of Dalton], named the elements and used symbols to represent elements in a chemical formula. He also calculated the atomic weights of different elements.
1834-Michael Faraday:
Faraday discovered that when electricity is passed through ionic solutions, the amount of chemical change produced was proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through it.
1841-chemical society was founded in England.
1845-the Royal college of chemistry was founded.
1851-The Royal School of Mines was established in London
1852- The concept of valency by Edward Frankland.
1860- The world's first chemical conference held in Europe [Karlsruhe Congress] by Kekule. 140 delegates participated in it. The young Siberian Mendeleyev was also present in the meet.
1869-Mendeleev constructed the periodic table of elements, based on increasing atomic weights of elements.
1898-discovery of Noble gases by William Ramsay.
Atomic Number as the Basis for the Periodic Law
The study of the Periodic Table of elements is the study of Chemistry.
