Uranium ore processing
Uranium ore is mined in several
ways: by open pit, underground or by leaching uranium from low-grade ores Uranium ore typically contains 0.1 to 0.25
percent of actual uranium oxides. So extensive measures must be employed to
extract the metal from its ore. Uranium ore is crushed and rendered into a fine
powder and then leached with either an acid or alkali. The
leachate is then subjected to one of several sequences of precipitation,
solvent extraction, and ion exchange. The resulting mixture, called yellowcake,
contains at least 75 percent uranium oxides. Yellowcake is then generally
further refined using nitric acid to
create a solution of uranyl nitrate. Additional solvent extraction procedures
finish the process.
Commercial-grade uranium can be
produced through the reduction of
uranium halides with alkali or alkaline earth metals.
Uranium metal can also be made through electrolysis of KUF5 or
UF4, dissolved in a molten calcium chloride (CaCl2) and sodium chloride (NaCl). Very pure uranium can be produced through the
thermal decomposition of uranium halides on a hot filament.
Cascades of gas centrifuges are
used to enrich uranium ore to concentrate its fissionable isotopes. Enrichment
of uranium ore through isotope separation to concentrate the fissionable
uranium-235 is needed for use in nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons. A
majority of neutrons
released by a fissioning atom of uranium-235 must impact other uranium-235
atoms to sustain the nuclear chain reaction needed for these applications. The
concentration and amount of uranium-235 needed to achieve this is called a
'critical mass.'
To be considered 'enriched' the
uranium-235 fraction has to be increased to significantly greater than its
concentration in naturally-occurring uranium. Enriched uranium typically has a
uranium-235 concentration of between 3 and 5 percent.
The gas centrifuge process,
where gaseous uranium hexafluoride (UF6) is separated by weight using
high-speed centrifuges, has
become the cheapest and leading enrichment process (lighter UF6 concentrates in
the center of the centrifuge).
The most common forms of
uranium oxide are triuranium octaoxide (U3O8) and the aforementioned UO2. Both oxide forms are solids that have low
solubility in water and are relatively stable over a wide range of
environmental conditions
Triuranium octaoxide is
(depending on conditions) the most stable compound of uranium and is the form
most commonly found in nature. Uranium dioxide is the form in which uranium is
most commonly used as a nuclear reactor fuel. At ambient temperatures, UO2 will
gradually convert to U3O8. Because of their stability, uranium oxides are
generally considered the preferred chemical form for storage or disposal
At room temperatures, UF6 has a
high vapor pressure,
making it useful in the gaseous diffusion process to separate highly valuable
uranium-235 from the far more common uranium-238 isotope. This compound can be
prepared from uranium dioxide and uranium hydride by the following process:
UO2 + 4HF + heat (500 °C)
→ UF4 + 2H2O
UF4 + F2 + heat (350°) → UF6
The resulting UF6 white solid
is highly reactive (by
fluorination), easily sublimes
(emitting a nearly perfect gas vapor), and is the most volatile compound of
uranium known to exist.
The main use of uranium in the
civilian sector is to fuel commercial nuclear power plants; by the time it is
completely fissioned, one kilogram of uranium can theoretically produce about
20 trillion joules of energy (20 × 1012 joules); as much electricity as
1500 metric ton of coal.
The south
Basin Uranium deposits
In the
south of the Basin, the Tummalapalle belt with low-grade strata-bound
carbonate uranium mineralisation is 160 km long, and appears increasingly
prospective – AMD reports 37,000 tU in 15 km of it and over 100,000 tU overall,
extending down dip to 1000 metres. Some secondary mineralisation is
reported in the Srisailam sub-basin.
In
August 2007 the government approved a new US$ 270 million underground mine and
mill at Tummalapalle near Pulivendula in Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh, 300
km south of Hyderabad. Its resources have been revised upwards by AMD to 71,690
tU (March 2014) and its cost to Rs 19 billion ($430 million), and to the end of
2012 expenditure was Rs 11 billion ($202 million). First commercial production was
in June 2012, using an innovative pressurised alkaline leaching process (this
being the first time alkaline leaching is used in India). Production is
expected to reach 220 tU/yr as sodium diuranate, and in 2013 mill capacity was
being doubled at a cost of Rs 8 billion ($147 million). An expansion of or from
the Tummalapalle project is the Kanampalle U project, with 38,000 tU reserves.
Further southern mineralisation near Tummalapalle are Motuntulapalle,
Muthanapalle, and Rachakuntapalle
In
Karnataka, to the west of north Cuddapah Basin, UCIL is planning a small
underground uranium mine in the Bhima basin at Gogi in Gulbarga area
from 2014, after undertaking a feasibility study, and getting central
government approval in mid-2011, state approval in November 2011 and explicit
state support in June 2012. A portable mill is planned for Diggi or Saidpur
nearby, using conventional alkaline leaching. Total cost is about $135 million.
Resources are 4250 tU at 0.1% (seen as relatively high-grade) including 2600 tU
reserves, sufficient for 15 years mine life, at 127 tU/yr, from
fracture/fault-controlled uranium mineralisation. UCIL plans also to utilise
the uranium deposits in the Bhima belt from Sedam in Gulbarga to Muddebihal in
Bijapur.
India's Uranium mines and mills
State, district
|
Mine
|
Mill
|
Operating from
|
tU per year
|
Jharkhand
|
Jaduguda
|
Jaduguda
|
1967
(mine)
1968
(mill)
|
200
total from mill
|
Bhatin
|
Jaduguda
|
1967
|
||
Narwapahar
|
Jaduguda
|
1995
|
||
Bagjata
|
Jaduguda
|
2008
|
||
Jharkhand, East
Singhbum dist.
|
Turamdih
|
Turamdih
|
2003
(u/g mine)
2008
(mill)
|
190
total from mill
|
Banduhurang
|
Turamdih
|
2007
(open pit)
|
||
Mohuldih
|
Turamdih
|
2012
|
||
Andhra Pradesh,
Kadapa/YSR district
|
Tummalapalle
|
Tummalapalle
|
2012
2015
(mill)
|
220
increasing to 330
|
Andhra Pradesh, Kadapa/YSR
district
|
Tummalapalle
|
Kanampalle?
|
2017?
|
|
Telengana, Nalgonda
district
|
Lambapur-Peddagattu
|
Seripally/Mallapuram
|
2024?
(open pit + 3 u/g)
|
130
|
Karnataka, Yadgir
(Gulbarga) district
|
Gogi
|
Diggi/Saidapur
|
2020?
(underground)
|
130
|
Meghalaya, West Khasi
Hills district
|
Kylleng-Pyndeng-Sohiong-Mawthabah
(KPM), (Domiasiat), Wakhyn
|
Mawthabah
|
2022?
(open pit)
|
340
|
Acid Leaching
Acid
leaching has the advantage of being more effective with difficult ores,
requiring lower temperatures and leaching times compared to alkaline solutions.
It also requires less pretreatment than alkaline leaching, most notably because
the particle size from the grinding process does not need to be as small. Acid leaching is sometimes also referred to
as heap leaching because the leaching process can be performed on large
"heaps" of uranium ore that have been collected from mines. The
chemistry of the leaching process revolves around oxidation of the uranium
compounds, which is typically achieved using manganese dioxide (MnO2), sodium chlorate (NaClO3), and Fe(II) salts. Sulfuric acid is typically used due to the
solubility of uranyl sulfate complexes.
The reaction is typically performed at slightly elevated temperatures (~60C)
and can often release H2, H2S, and CO2 gases
during the process. The uranium, which
typically begins in the tetravalent state, goes through a series of reactions,
eventually leading to the formation of the desired complex, [UO2(SO4)3]4-.
While the solubility of this complex makes sulfuric acid a desirable leaching
agent, nitric and hydrochloric acid can also be used, but are typically not due
to their higher cost and corrosiveness.
Alkaline Leaching
While
both acidic and alkaline leaching agents are used, alkaline leaching has some
significant advantages. Alkaline solutions tend to be more selective to uranium
minerals, which means the solution will contain fewer impurities. Consequently,
the uranium oxide (commonly called "yellow cake") can be directly
precipitated without purification. Furthermore, the solutions are less
corrosive and can be recycled without the annoyance of increasing impurity
concentrations. The alkaline leaching
process relies on the formation of highly soluble uranyl tricarbonate, UO2(CO3)34-.
As in the case of acid leaching, oxidizers are used to maintain the presence of
the hexavalent U6+ cation. This
can be achieved by simply introducing oxygen into the solution by bubbling air
into the solution. The leaching agents
used are sodium bicarbonate and sodium carbonate. This prevents formation of uranyl
hydroxide compounds. Due to the slower reactivity of the alkaline solutions,
increased pressures and temperatures are sometimes used to accelerate the
process.
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